Carbon capture and storage

Carbon capture and storage Introduction Increasing numbers now recognise the potential devastation upon the worldwide environment climate change could have. With CO2 emissions increasing at a rate of 1.6%/Yr (1999-2005) and emissions from power production at 23,684 Mt/yr (2005)1 plus no current successor to the Kyoto Protocol*, it is clear that Carbon Dioxide is going to become an ever growing threat to our planets stability. Worryingly, not only in a climatic sense but a societal one as well. From solar and geothermal power to hydrogen fuel cells, the scientific community is working to develop ways of reducing CO2 output and one field of growing interest from both the research and business community is Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). Serious research in this field is relatively new and many aspects of its viability, safety, efficiency and cost have still to be fully discovered. As CCS is simply storing CO2 and not actually decomposing it, many feel CCS is counter-productive and the resources should instead be channelled to focus on clean energy production. However with current emission trends, CCS will be an extremely useful tool should we see drastic changes in climate toward the end of this century and need a way to buy time to fully utilise and develop clean energy. This paper will briefly describe a range of potential CCS methods as shown in figure A as well as discuss the potential for CCS in our society. The smallest estimated potential storage for CO2 at 320Gt is worth approximately 32 years of emissions!2 Few dispute the fact that we should evolve to a more environmentally-friendly society in all senses of the word, CCS will buy the time needed for this to happen. Over the last 10-20 years several proposals have been put forward and developed such as the Sleipner oil field, Norway and ‘CarbFix in Iceland. We are now beginning to get live data from current CCS projects worldwide to analyse and use for the enhancement of CCS, this paper aims to synthesise this information from these pr ojects for a brief analysis of CCS potential. Deep Ocean or the deep seabed Many have hypothesised on potential CCS sites. One suggestion is storing CO2 in the deep ocean or seabed as shown in figure B. As the oceans are already absorbing ~8 billion tons of CO2and negating ~50% of our anthropogenic CO2 emissions3 it is already a natural CCS site. CO2 is denser than seawater in its supercritical state (both solid and liquid, see figure C)and so will sink and pond on the seabed staying there for thousands of years as figure B illustrates. Alternatively, ships would pump CO2 into the ocean as shown in figure B where natural thermohaline currents would dissolve the CO2 upon which that slightly denser body of water would pond on the seabed. While salinity, pressure and temperature all affect the dissolution of CO2, below 600m, 41-48kg/m3 CO2 can dissolve in a 1M brine solution,2 a fairly large figure. Increase the brine concentration and this figure will drop,however, with the average molarity of the oceans at 0.5M it is clear that this store has great potential . Unfortunately immediate acidification of the local water would occur as carbonic acid forms. Therefore this storage method would probably be devastating to local ecology. The cost:benefit analysis over acidifying patches of ocean as opposed to lowering atmospheric CO2 and thats effect upon terrestrial habitats and surface ocean marine communities could fill a thesis and resulted in much debate. This method has so far seen no field tests even though its potential storage capacity is vast and inestimable. Mineral Carbonation Of similar environmental concern is disposal via mineral carbonation. CO2 reacts with certain rocks to form carbonate minerals. This process is seen naturally in the form of weathering where ~1.8108 tons CO2 are mineralised annually yet this geochemical process could also occur underground. Rather than mine and crush rocks such as basalt and peridotite to react with atmospheric CO2 on the surface, causing major environmental disruption due to mass mining operation and a great increase in sediment flux,4 CO2 would be injected into deep geological stores of: olivine; pyroxene; and plagioclase.Here the CO2 would slowly react to form its carbonates over tens of thousands of years where it would then be a near permanent store. As these reactive minerals are found in reasonable abundance in basic rock, potential CCS sites of this nature are found worldwide. The Columbia River basalt has been predicted to be able to dispose of 36-148Gt/CO2 whereas the Caribbean flood basalts could potentia l store 1,000-5,500Gt/CO2. Similarly, the basalt basin offshore of Washington D.C. could hold 500-2,500Gt/CO2.10 The gaseous CO2 conversion to solid carbonate involves an increase in volume and pressure. It is hypothesised this process would cause major fracturing within the basalt rock which could potentially form an escape route for the still supercritical CO2 (see figure D).8 The ‘CarbFix Pilot Project in Iceland is monitoring the effects and potential of this style of CCS through intensive Geophysical monitoring as ~9.4Mt/CO2 is pumped into the ground. Coal-bed seams Worldwide there are many coal fields economically unviable for mining and these are potential CCS sites as figure A (4) shows. The coal seams contain natural micropores due to coal production process. These micropores currently contain methane molecules, again as a by-product of the coal creation. However, CO2 molecules adsorb to the micropores easier than the CH4.2 By pumping CO2 into these seams a volume of CH4 will be yielded proportional to the volume of CO2 injected,2 while still providing a deep underground store for CO2. This has been calculated at 20m3/ton coal from a field site in the San Juan Basin. Therefore there is an approximate minimum storage capacity of 150Gt/CO2 worldwide however exact volumes of unmineable coal are not available. Adsorption involves weak electrostatic forces to hold the CO2 molecules to the pore which are very dependent on a stable environment.2 Should any tectonic activity take place to alter the temperature or pressure of the storage site, the C O2 would detach and plume. This CO2 plume would then slow migrate to the surface through existing pore channels which figure D shows clearly. This is a worry faced in many CCS schemes, as any CO2 migration could cause interaction and dissolution into groundwater thereby polluting it, force saline groundwater to mix with freshwater and pollute the freshwater or alternatively migrate to the earth surface and plume. Also, dependent on the CCS site, CO2 could end up acidifying patches of ocean where ‘leaks have occurred. CO2 plumes on the earth surface have proven fatal before when 1,700 people and all fauna within a 14km radius perished in the Lake Nyos disaster when CO2 suddenly degassed from the base of the lake to the atmosphere. 14 Depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline aquifers One of the most promising and researched suggestions is storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline aquifers. Figure A (1,3a,3b) illustrates these are both on and off shore and deep geological area of rock with high porosity and low permeability. The gas field ‘Sleipner West in the North Sea just off the Norwegian coast is an actual working CCS site where much research into CCS is being conducted and monitored. 1106 tons of CO2/Yr2 are being pumped into a space of 5.5x1011m32 previously occupied by predominantly methane gas. The CO2 is stored in the pore spaces in rocks identical to how groundwater is stored in aquifers. In the case of saline aquifers, while pumping in CO2, saline water is removed as well as forced into surrounding rock. These Porous rocks are commonly sedimentary rocks found in basins normally 600-1200m deep. Pressure increases with depth as well as temperature, by about 28Â °C/km2. This means CO2 would need to be stored in its supercritical state ( figure C) which is more compact than normal, 1 ton of CO2 occupies 6m3 rock2. Once injected, the CO2 will naturally migrate through the pore spaces trying to reach ground level (figure D). During this process the CO2 will become ‘trapped and well in pore routes which do not actually lead to the surface. The inevitable migration makes choosing a CCS site difficult. Any site needs an impermeable rock layer above it or a low permeability rock where the migration time will be equal to the sites desired lifespan to act as a ‘cap rock. Without a cap rock, the CO2 could migrate back to the surface in decades making the entire operation an epic fail. However, storing CO2 in these fields is not just about pocketing it underground. The geochemical processes of dissolution and mineral precipitation would also occur adding to the favourability of depleted reservoirs as the optimum CCS technique. For any single site 3 different forms of CCS would be occurring. Dissolution would take a few thousand years dependant on the surface area to volume ratio of water to CO2 and mineralisation would happen along similar timelines. Therefore, four factors will affect the usefulness of any CCS depleted reservoir site: immobilisation of CO2 in any traps or wells; geochemical reactions between the rock and CO2; dissolution into groundwater or saline water resident in the rock; and migration back to the surface.2 The benefits of this method of CCS do not stop here though! The process of pumping CO2 into the ground forces out the dregs of what was previously there, beneficial if it was gas or oil. Shows this as a separate process but it can easily be paired with depleted fossil fuel stores. This can be collected and sold, providing a slight economical offset to the cost of the project. This is referred to as Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR). EOR has been embraced in the Americas and is in use at Pan-Canadians Weyburn field in Saskatchewan, another field example of CCS in use today. Only 18Mt/CO2 is its expected capacity2 however data on this specific technique will be invaluable. It does raise questions into the economics as it would take thousands of these sites worldwide to have a significant impact upon atmospheric levels and with each new site, the risks of a CO2 disaster associated with the storing of CO2 increases. Worldwide there is great uncertainty into the potential volumetric storage capacity of CO2 in underground reservoirs ranging from 400-10,000 Gt/CO2 according to Hendriks and Blok, 425Gt/CO2 was proposed by Van De Meer whereas Koide and team calculated it at 320Gt/CO2. There is such variation not only because worldwide high resolution mapping of the subsurface is scarce, but the presence of micropores is undetectable and the question of how do you incorporate figures from processes such as dissolution and geochemical mineral precipitation is raised. Figure E shows the IPCC calculation of potential worldwide storage sites. Either way, CCS can cl early buy the time we may need to avoid major global climate change. Conclusion As natural gas itself contains a fraction of CO2, this proves it is possible to store CO2 in a geological setting for millions of years, the exact purpose of CCS technology. Unfortunately, with all the ambition and optimism over CCS, its true benefits must be realistically analysed. Yes CO2 is a powerful greenhouse gas and the one most accountable to anthropogenic sources,1 but it is only one of many. CCS is completely unable to deal with methane, sulphur oxides and of apparent increasing importance, water vapour. Critics are also completely correct with their feelings of it only being a temporary fix. The earths surface system is dynamic enough that the stored carbon will eventually make its way back into the atmospheric carbon cycle . Although we will be far gone, is that a responsible excuse? CO2 migration will occur within the store and so will need constant monitoring. Is the economic cost of initiation, monitoring and potential clean-up should leaks develop enough to justify t he project? Current estimates reckon in the cement industry, it will cost $50-250/ton CO2 to be avoided2 and that electricity prices will have to double at minimum2, the lower figures representing technology advancement. The CO2 could pollute groundwater sources with saline water and Cox et. al. have perceived that a fault during late stage CO2 injection could produce a CO2 plume similar to that seen at Lake Nyos.[19] While this risk could be mitigated by placing CCS sites offshore it would still be an ecological disaster.2 Finally, who would be responsible for the CCS site? The purpose of the site is to store CO2 for 10,000 years or more.19 It is highly unlike any company will be around for its lifetime. While CCS is technically possible, it undoubtedly requires more research and development to convince not only the rest of the scientific community, but the general public as well. As of February 2010 Metz, B. et. al. IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage 2005 ISBN-13 978-0-521-86643-9 Holloway, S. Underground Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide a viable greenhouse gas mitigation option Energy 30 (2005) Pg2318-2333 Keeling, R. Triage in the greenhouse Nature Geoscience 2 (Dec 2009) Pg820-822 Bickle, M. Geological carbon storage Nature Geoscience 2 (Dec 2009) Pg815-818 Bachu S. Sequestration of CO2 in geological media in response to climate change Energy Conservation Management 2004 (Pg147-164) National Oceanographic Data Center www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/WOA05/pr_woa05.html (Data set 2005) Dessert, C. et. al. Weathering laws and their impact of basalt weathering on the global carbon cycle Chemical Geology 202 Pg257-273 (2003) Matter, J. Kelemen, P. Permanent storage of carbon dioxide in geological reservoirs by mineral carbonation Nature Geoscience 2 (Dec 2009) Pg837-840 McGrail, P. et. al. Potential for carbon dioxide sequestration in flood basalts Journal of Geophysical Research 111, 2006 Pg445-468 Goldberg, D. Slagle, A. A global assessment of deep sea basalt sites for carbon sequestration Energy Procedia 1 (2009) Pg3675-3682 Juerg, M. et. al. Permanent Carbon Dioxide storage into basalt: the CarbFix Pilot Project, Iceland Energy Procedia 1 (2009) Pg3641-3646 Creedy, D. An introduction to geological aspects of methane occurrence and control in British deep coal mines Geology 1991;24 Pg209-220 Glazer, E. CO2 Sequestration Princeton University Website www.princeton.edu/~chm333/2002/fall/co_two/geo/coal_beds.htm#_ftn7 2002 Le Guern, F. Sigvaldason, G. The Lake Nyos event and natural CO2 degassing Volcanol Geotherm Research 1989 Pg95-276 Czernichowski-Lauriol, I. The underground disposal of Carbon Dioxide British Geological Survey 1996 Pg183-276 Hendriks, C. Blok, K. Underground storage of Carbon Dioxide Energy Conservation Management 1995 36(6-9):539-542 Van De Meer, L. Investigation regarding the storage of carbon dioxide in Aquifers Energy Conservation Management 1992;33(5-8):611-618 Kodie, H. et. al. Subterranean containment and long term storage of carbon dioxide in unused aquifers and in depleted natural gas reservoirs Energy Conservation Management 1992;33(5-8):619-626 Cox, H. et. al. Safety and stability of underground CO2 storage British Geological Survey 1996 Pg116-162

History – Martin Luther King

Martin Luther King's Jr. was a man of great ambition. He had a dream of granting civil rights to colored people; eliminating poverty and war; and doing this all non-violently. King's utter passion significantly helped him achieve his dream. On the journey to reaching his goal, and after King accomplished many of the heroic archetypes. Therefore, one can consider Martin Luther King Jr. an archetypal hero. Segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. Which then between the 1950s and 1960s black Americans had their time of suffering.In which the white people believed that separating white people from black people would change a lot of things. Racial tensions had escalated and demonstrations swelled for voting rights and school integration. In 1955 Martin Luther King became the leader in the Montgomery bus. The Community chose King to lead the boycott because the young minister was new to Montgomery and the city fathers had not had time to intimidate him. The protesters did a march down miles of roads for their intended to oppose the city's policy of racial segregation on its public transit system.Fighting for what they think is right taken them about 381 days; they fought hard until they get what they started. The Montgomery bus boycott became very violent, so they fought very hard in the court. On November the 13th, after a year of blood, sweat and tears gone. The U. S Supreme Court ruled in favour, of the blacks and segregated buses were declared unconstitutional. The Montgomery bus Boycott was finally over. The boycott was a success because they all protested until everyone had enough. They never gave up on what they fought was right. Most important was when the Negros had enough and they wanted their rights back.As they protested and done other things they had many supports. The problem of this was the civil rights movement in the United States; it was a long primarily nonviolent struggle to bring full civil rights and equality und er the law to all Americans. The movement has had a lasting impact on the United Sates Society. The Negros wanted to fight for their rights back because in many cities and towns, African-Americans were not allowed to share a taxi with whites or enter a building through the same entrance, and they thought well that is one selfish thing.They wanted the whites to accept them and be treated equally, by not their skin colour but the way that God created them. They thought that everyone is the same in different kind of way, â€Å"We all are human beings and all have something in common†. The Negros done lots of Protest and finally, that’s when Martin Luther King stood out and said what he thought was right for the world but mostly United State. King toured the country making speeches and urging more and more people to get involved in the civil rights movement .And as a result they finally got what they called rights. In 1964 the Civil Rights Act was passed because of Pressur e by the civil rights movement. It was passed by Lyndon B. Johnson. He said that â€Å"Every American citizen must have an equal right to vote. † The Civil Rights Act was passed away because of the votes they got were unspeakable. Seventy Percent said that it should be passed way and the thirsty percent said that it shouldn’t. As the vote was taken in and final, they could not do anything about it and it was officially passed.It meant so much to the black people because now the Freedom Riders and the black and white people would travel around in buses to test if the new law would work. And that now they can make a difference! Then in 1965 the voting rights act was passed as well because of the civil rights movement. The Voting Rights Act was passed by Lyndon B. Johnson as well. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was a landmark piece of national legislation in the United States that outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfr anchisement of African Americans in the U.S. When Johnson agreed to sign the paper the black people knew that they were closer each day to success. It meant a lot them this because it was a day to remember that they are finally getting respect from the whites. But as everything was going well, there were still failures for the Civil Rights Movement too. The Civil Rights Movement had many failures as do all social movements. But its strengths outweighed the mistakes it made and its legacy as a whole is a positive one. Businesses owned by people of colour are still denied equal access to markets, financing, and capital.Centuries of economic deprivation, and the problems stemming from it, remain largely un- addressed. But it still was alright because Movement was still a success. In Conclusion, the changes that were made in the civil rights movement has really helped America and leaded them to a place where they can find peace. And for the Civil rights Groups, there is so much that peo ple have to say and so much that we still need to learn from you. They were very successful because they were the freedom fighter and they were the ones who believed and never gave up.

Living on Campus vs Living Off Campus Essay

A college experience can be the greatest time in a student’s life for the reason being, it is a new path the individual is taking to pursue his or her future career. While pursuing a career, every student has his or her own personal preference of whether or not to live on campus. Deciding where to reside seems to be the topic that runs through every college student’s mind. Whether it is to live the college lifestyle filled with events and social opportunities that go hand in hand with rooming on campus, to simply staying at home or living nearby and keeping a peace of mind and building up financially. Living on or off campus can be a difficult decision to make for many, but depending on the college experience you prefer to have, it can be made into a simple decision. Living on campus can have many perks and positive aspects that will have many students eager to attend. Gas prices are through the roof these days in our economy and not having a gas bill can be a very efficient and effective way for saving more money. Having more money in your pocket is always beneficial. When living on campus there are many numerous ways to get to class faster and time efficiently such as biking, skateboarding, longboarding or simply just walking. Getting more exercise and time outdoors is a just another perk of living on campus and getting the real feel of the campus lifestyle. Also, living on campus can be time efficient when making your way to class that way you are not tardy. Another positive aspect of living on campus is being a part of the organizations, fundraisers, concerts, sporting events and other fun activities that take place on campus giving you a stronger feel for the lifestyle of the college. Being more involved in your college can lead up to many positive outcomes whether it is meeting new people to hang out with or growing as an independent individual because you are finally on your own. Even though there are many positive aspects to living on campus there are also negatives. When living on campus there is a big price to pay. Around average it is $7,500-$9,000 depending on whether it is a public or a private university. For a bachelor’s degree and living on campus for all four years is estimated to be around $32,000 and that’s just for room and board. With that being said that is a very large cost to pay for never having privacy. Having a roommate around can have its own negative perks all in itself whether it is from personality conflicts to having simple differences and opinions. For example, while a student might be trying to study or do homework, the other student might be trying to socialize with friends and listen to music which can lead to large conflicts. Having opposite personalities or schedules might be an issue for some students. Living off campus is a whole different experience as a student than living on campus. For instance, you can live a more of a private lifestyle; having your own room and personal space can be essential for a great learning and studying environment. Living off campus could mean living closer to family and relatives, who can be a great support group and give inspiration in any college barrier you, may come across. Also, living at home with Mom and Dad can save you a plethora of money, which means more money in your pocket, and like I have said before that is always a plus. Even though living off campus has its ups it can also have its downs. Living off campus can seclude you from the college events and the overall feel from the college community and lifestyle. Missing those types of involvements can really dampen your overall college experience and outlook of the college lifestyle. Also, depending on where you live if it is a big city college or small community college can determine the commute and what kind of transportation you are going to take. Bus passes can add up to be expensive and cars take up a lot of gas especially when driven daily and our gas prices today do not help. Riding a bike or skateboard is not always an option depending on where you live and how far away your location is from the campus. What can also have a negative effect to living on campus is the traffic that can cause you to become tardy to classes. Even when driving a personal vehicle you are not safe from tardies you still run the risk of car trouble, a full parking lot or traffic. Public transportation can also become a hassle; the reason being you cannot control the bus driver, if the bus is delayed or missed it can lead to problems with being on time. According to statistics shown by various sources indicate that students who live on campus tend to complete more semester hours and attain higher GPAs than the students that live off campus. Even though that is the case, Angelo State University reported that 80% of students still prefer to live off campus. (Jones, 2004). According to USNEWS. com â€Å"of the 1,259 schools that provided campus housing data to U. S. News, an average of 48 percent of the undergraduate student body lives on campus. Ten of the schools that provided data on campus housing in 2010 said that their entire undergraduate student body lives on campus, while 52 reported having no undergraduate students living in campus dorms†. (Wecker, 2011). When making the decision of living on or off campus make sure to always keep in mind the pros and the cons of each living scenario and the consequences that each come with. Although both living styles have there ups and downs they are both very beneficial to the college lifestyle in numerous ways whether it is being a part of the college experience and lifestyle to trying to save money and being more conservative with your money. The key is knowing yourself and what college experience you wish to pursue and prefer and that can make the decision of living on or off campus a simpler one.

Reasons For Choosing My Family - 973 Words

Engaging with families that are different from own can shape us as teachers, by allowing us to observe how others behave apart from in the classroom. Situations in the home affect the teachers experience and the child is learning the ability. Teacher’s, as well as parents, need to set boundaries in the home and school to allow their children to become successful. The ways in which we approach others determines the outcomes of the individuals. There are several key points addressed in the paper which include a rationale for choosing my family, and an introduction of myself. Others include the differences in our families in our families, appropriate questions when meeting the family and children. The family chosen is a co-worker Gianna; she is a hardworking mother and worker. She has two young children and an older daughter. She is a single mom struggling to raise her children and take care of herself Gianna is facing cancer of the uterus, working at Goodwill, making a little money. She does not have a car, having to walk to work and take her children to day-care. Her eldest daughter is a freeloader who has four children and a boyfriend. Gianna was kind enough to let them move in when they did not have a place to live. They did not have jobs, and could not help with the bills. At this point in life, she was struggling to provide a home and food for two families. When she finally had enough, she made them move out. They took all her food and stole hidden money.Show MoreRelated Adoption, the Moral Alternative to Abortion Essay1264 Words   |  6 PagesAdoption, the Moral Alternative to Abortion It was only three days after being born that I was flown to my new family in Illinois. If I had not been for a one woman’s unselfish decision, I would not be writing the words on this page right now. Abortion is an ethically wrong decision and option for a parent. 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